Prague Economic Papers 2025, 34(2):214-249 | DOI: 10.18267/j.pep.891

The Effects of Export Diversification and Concentration on Carbon Emissions: Asymmetric Evidence for Türkiye

Burcu Berke ORCID..., Gülsüm Akarsu ORCID..., Dilek Temiz ORCID...
Burcu Berke: Corresponding author, Professor, Nigde Ömer Halisdemir University, FEAS, Department of Economics, Nigde/Türkiye
Gülsüm Akarsu: Associate Professor, Ondokuz Mayis University, FEAS, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Samsun/Türkiye
Dilek Temiz: Professor, Çankaya University, FEAS, Department of International Trade and Finance, Ankara/Türkiye

Numerous studies have explored the possible causes of global carbon emissions and climate change; however, the impact of export diversification and concentration on these emissions is a less examined topic in literature. This study investigates the effects of export diversification and concentration on carbon emissions in Türkiye from 1995 to 2018, utilizing the nonlinear ARDL method. The findings indicate that export diversification reduces carbon emissions after accounting for the effects of other control variables, such as renewable energy, levels of inequality, and government size. In this model, an increase in renewable energy, inequality, and government size leads to higher carbon emissions and worsens environmental quality, although the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is supported. Additionally, this study reveals that positive shocks in export concentration reduce carbon emissions, while negative shocks increase emissions. This hypothesis remains valid for the specified period in Türkiye, but the control variables display behavior similar to export diversification. The results suggest that mitigating climate change and improving environmental quality in Türkiye relies on policies that support export diversification and concentration.

Keywords: Export Diversification, Export Concentration, Carbon Emission, Türkiye, NARDL
JEL classification: C5, Q56

Received: December 7, 2024; Revised: April 7, 2025; Accepted: May 20, 2025; Published: July 12, 2025  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Berke, B., Akarsu, G., & Temiz, D. (2025). The Effects of Export Diversification and Concentration on Carbon Emissions: Asymmetric Evidence for Türkiye. Prague Economic Papers, 34(2), 214-249. doi: 10.18267/j.pep.891
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Adewuyi, O. A., Awodumi, B. O. (2016). Analysis of the environmental pollution effect of Nigeria's export diversification drive. Annual Conference of the Nigerian Economic Society, Abuja, Nigeria, from August 15-18, 1-26.
    2. Adamu, T. M., Haq, I., Shafiq, M. (2019). Analyzing the impact of energy, export variety, and FDI on environmental degradation in the context of Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis: A case study of India. Energies, 12(6), 1076, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12061076 Go to original source...
    3. Adebayo, T. S., Awosusi, A. A., Rjoub, H., Agyekum, E. B., Kirikkaleli, D. (2022). The influence of renewable energy usage on consumption-based carbon emissions in MINT countries.Heliyon, 8(e08941), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08941 Go to original source...
    4. Adebayo, T. S., Rjoub, H., Akinsola, G. D., Oladipupo, S. D. (2022). The asymmetric effects of renewable energy consumption and trade openness on carbon emissions in Sweden: New evidence from quantile-on-quantile regression approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 1875-1886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15706-4 Go to original source...
    5. Adebayo, T. S., Oladipupo, S. D., Rjoub, H., Kirikkaleli, D., Adeshola, I. (2023). Asymmetric effect of structural change and renewable energy consumption on carbon emissions: Designing an SDG framework for Türkiye. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25, 528-556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02065-w Go to original source...
    6. Ajide, B., Ibrahim, L. (2022). Environmental impacts of income inequality: Evidence from G7 economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 1887-1908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15720-6 Go to original source...
    7. Akadiri, S. S., Adebayo, T. S. (2022). Asymmetric nexus among financial globalization, non-renewable energy, renewable energy use, economic growth, and carbon emissions impact on environmental sustainability targets in India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 16311-16323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16849-0 Go to original source...
    8. Ali, I. M. A. (2022). Income inequality and environmental degradation in Egypt: Evidence from dynamic ARDL approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 8408-8422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16275-2 Go to original source...
    9. Andersson, F. N. G. (2023). Income inequality and carbon emissions in the United States 1929-2019. Ecological Economics, 204, 107633, 1-14 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107633 Go to original source...
    10. Apergis, N. (2016). Environmental Kuznets curves: New evidence on both panel and country-level CO2 emissions. Energy Economics, 54, 263-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2015.12.007 Go to original source...
    11. Apergis, N., Can, M., Gozgor, G., Lau, C. M. (2018). Effects of export concentration on CO2 emissions in developed countries: An empirical analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 14106-14116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1634-x Go to original source...
    12. Ang, J. B. (2007). CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and output in France. Energy Policy, 35, 4772-4778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2007.03.032 Go to original source...
    13. Ali, R., Alwang, J., Siegel, B. P. (1991). Is export diversification the best way to achieve export growth and stability: A look at three African countries. Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers No. WPS 729, Agriculture Operations, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. [Retrieved 2023-08-01] Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/635281468774612514/Is-export-diversification-the-best-way-to-achieve-export-growth-and-stability-A-look-at-three-African-countries
    14. Azam, W., Khan, I., Ali, S. A. (2023). Alternative energy and natural resources in determining environmental sustainability: A look at the role of government final consumption expenditures in France. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30, 1949-1965. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22334-z Go to original source...
    15. Baek, J. (2016). Do nuclear and renewable energy improve the environment: Evidence from the United States. Ecological Indicators, 66, 352-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.059 Go to original source...
    16. Baek, J., Gweisah, G. (2013). Does income inequality harm the environment?: Empirical evidence from the United States. Energy Policy, 62, 1434-1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.097 Go to original source...
    17. Baloch, M. A., Danish. (2022). The nexus between renewable energy, income inequality, and consumption-based CO2 emissions: An empirical investigation. Sustainable Development, 30(5), 1268-1277. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2315 Go to original source...
    18. Bekhet, H. A., Matar, A., Yasmin, T. (2017). CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, and financial development in GCC countries: Dynamic simultaneous equation models. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 70, 117-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.089 Go to original source...
    19. Berthe, A., Elie, L. (2015). Mechanisms explaining the impact of economic inequality on environmental deterioration. Ecological Economics, 116, 191-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.04.026 Go to original source...
    20. Berthelemy, J. C., Chauvin, S. (2000). Structural changes in Asia and growth prospects after the crisis. CEPII Working Papers.
    21. Bilgili, F., Koçak, E., Bulut, Ü. (2016). The dynamic impact of renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions: A revisited environmental Kuznets curve approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 838-845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.080 Go to original source...
    22. Cadot, O., Carrere, C., Strauss-Kahn, V. (2011). Export diversification: What's behind the hump? Review of Economics and Statistics, 93(2), 590-605. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00078 Go to original source...
    23. Can, M., Gözgör, G. (2017). The impact of economic complexity on carbon emissions: Evidence from France. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24, 16364-16370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9219-7 Go to original source...
    24. Can, M., Ahmad, M., Khan, Z. (2021). The impact of export composition on environment and energy demand: Evidence from newly industrialized countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 33599-33612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13084-5 Go to original source...
    25. Can, M., Dogan, B., Saboori, B. (2020). Does trade matter for environmental degradation in developing countries? New evidence in the context of export product diversification. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 14702-14710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08000-2 Go to original source...
    26. Cao, G., Xie, F., Ling, M. (2022). Spillover effects in Chinese carbon, energy and financial markets. International Finance, 25(3), 416-434. https://doi.org/10.1111/infi.12417 Go to original source...
    27. Chen, L. (2022). How CO2 emissions respond to changes in government size and level of digitalization? Evidence from the BRICS countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 457-467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15693-6 Go to original source...
    28. Cheng, C., Ren, X., Wang, Z., Yan, C. (2019). Heterogeneous impacts of renewable energy and environmental patents on CO2 emission - Evidence from the BRIICS. Science of the Total Environment, 668, 1328-1338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.063 Go to original source...
    29. Clement, M., Meunie, A. (2010). Is inequality harmful for the environment? An empirical analysis applied to developing and transition countries. Review of Social Economy, 68(4), 413-444. https://doi.org/10.1080/00346760903480590 Go to original source...
    30. Danisha, Baloch, M. A., Wang, B. (2019). Analyzing the role of governance in CO2 emissions mitigation: The BRICS experience. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 51, 119-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2019.08.007 Go to original source...
    31. Demir, C., Cergibozan, R., Gök, A. (2019). Income inequality and CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from Türkiye. Energy and Environment, 30(3), 444-461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X18793109 Go to original source...
    32. Doğan, E., Şeker, F. (2016). Determinants of CO2 emissions in the European Union: The role of renewable and non-renewable energy. Renewable Energy, 94, 429-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.078 Go to original source...
    33. Doğan, B., Mara, M., Kumar, A. T., Shawkat, H. (2020). Impacts of export quality on environmental degradation: Does income matter? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 13735-13772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07371-5 Go to original source...
    34. Erdogan, E. Serin Oktay, D., Manga, M., Bal, H., Algan, N. (2024) "Examining the effects of renewable energy and economic growth on carbon emission in Canada: evidence from the nonlinear ARDL approaches. Evaluation Review, 48(1), 63-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X231166973 Go to original source...
    35. Fang, J., Gözgör, G., Lu, Z., Wu, W. (2019). Effects of the export product quality on carbon dioxide emissions: Evidence from developing economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 12181-12193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04513-7 Go to original source...
    36. Gözgör, G., Can, M. (2016). Export product diversification and the Environmental Kuznets Curve: Evidence from Türkiye. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 21594-21603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7403-9 Go to original source...
    37. Gözgör, G., Can, M. (2017). Does export product quality matter for CO2 emissions? Evidence from China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24, 2866-2875. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8070-6 Go to original source...
    38. Grossman, G. M., Krueger, A. B. (1995). Economic growth and the environment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110, 353-377. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118443 Go to original source...
    39. Hailemariam, A., Dzhumashev, R., Shahbaz, M. (2020). Carbon emissions, income inequality, and economic development. Empirical Economics, 59, 1139-1159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-019-01664-x Go to original source...
    40. Halkos, G. E., Paizanos, E. A. (2013). The effect of government expenditure on the environment: An empirical investigation. Ecological Economics, 91, 48-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.04.002 Go to original source...
    41. Halkos, G. E., Paizanos, E. A. (2016). The effects of fiscal policy on CO2 emissions: Evidence from the U.S.A. Energy Policy, 88, 317-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.10.035 Go to original source...
    42. Hao, Y., Chen, H., Zhang, Q. (2016). Will income inequality affect environmental quality? Analysis based on China's provincial panel data. Ecological Indicators, 67, 533-542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.03.025 Go to original source...
    43. Haug, A.A., & Ucal, M. (2019). The role of trade and FDI for CO2 emissions in Türkiye: Nonlinear relationships. Energy Economics, 81, 297-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.04.006 Go to original source...
    44. Hübler, M. (2017). The inequality-emissions nexus in the context of trade and development: A quantile regression approach. Ecological Economics, 134, 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.015 Go to original source...
    45. Iqbal, N., Abbasi, K. R., Shinwari, R., Guangcai, W., Ahmad, M., & Tang, K. (2021). Does exports diversification and environmental innovation achieve carbon neutrality target of OECD economies? Journal of Environmental Management, 291, 112648, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112648 Go to original source...
    46. Jalil, A., & Feridun, M. (2011). The impact of growth, energy and financial development on the environment in China: a cointegration analysis. Energy Economics, 33, 284-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2010.10.003 Go to original source...
    47. Jayanthakumaran, K., Verma, R., & Liu, Y. (2012). CO2 emissions, energy consumption, trade and income: a comparative analysis of China and India. Energy Policy, 42, 450-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.12.010 Go to original source...
    48. Jorgenson, A.K. (2015). Inequality and the carbon intensity of human well-being. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 5, 277-282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-015-0234-z Go to original source...
    49. Jorgenson, A., Schor, J., Huang, X. (2017). Income inequality and carbon emissions in the United States: A state-level analysis, 1997-2012. Ecological Economics, 134, 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.016 Go to original source...
    50. Kaika, D., Zervas, E. (2013a). The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) theory - Part A: Concept, causes, and the CO2 emissions case. Energy Policy, 62, 1392-1402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.131 Go to original source...
    51. Kaika, D., Zervas, E. (2013b). The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) theory - Part B: Critical issues. Energy Policy, 62, 1403-1411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.130 Go to original source...
    52. Katircioğlu, S., Katircioğlu, S. (2018). Testing the role of fiscal policy in environmental degradation: The case of Türkiye. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 5616-5630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0906-1 Go to original source...
    53. Khan, I., Han, L., Zhong, R., Bibi, R., Khan, H. (2023). Income inequality, economic growth, renewable energy usage, and environmental degradation in the Belt and Road initiative countries: Dynamic panel estimation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30, 57142-57154. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-023-26273-1 Go to original source...
    54. Khan, Z., Murshed, M., Dong, K., Yang, S. (2021). The roles of export diversification and composite country risks in carbon emissions abatement: Evidence from the signatories of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership agreement. Applied Economics, 53 (41), 4769-4787. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2021.1907289 Go to original source...
    55. Kwiatkowski, D., Phillips, P., Schmidt, P., Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis stationary against the alternative of a unit root: How sure are we that economic time series have a unit root? Journal of Econometrics, 54, 159-187. Go to original source...
    56. Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, 45, 1-28.
    57. Iwata, H., Okada, K., Samwoth, S. (2012). Empirical study on the determinants of CO2 emissions: Evidence from OECD countries. Applied Economics, 44(27), 3513-3519. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.577023 Go to original source...
    58. Lan, H., Cheng, C., Sohail, M. T. (2022). Asymmetric determinants of CO2 emissions in China: Do government size and economic size matter?. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 47225-47232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19096-z Go to original source...
    59. Lau, L. S., Choong, C. K., Eng, Y. K. (2014). Investigation of the environmental Kuznets curve for carbon emissions in Malaysia: Do foreign direct investment and trade matter?. Energy Policy, 68, 490-497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.01.002 Go to original source...
    60. Leitão, N. C., Lorente, D. B. (2020). The linkage between economic growth, renewable energy, tourism, CO2 emissions, and international trade: The evidence for the European Union. Energies, 13(2020), 4838, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184838 Go to original source...
    61. Lind, J. T., Mehlum, H. (2010). With or without U? The appropriate test for a U-shaped relationship. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 72(1), 109-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2009.00569.x Go to original source...
    62. Liu, H., Kim, H., Choe, J. (2019). Export diversification, CO2 emissions, and EKC: Panel data analysis of 125 countries. Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science, 3, 361-393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41685-018-0099-8 Go to original source...
    63. Ling, C. H., Ahmed, K., Binti, M. R., Shahbaz, M. (2015). Decomposing the trade-environment nexus for Malaysia: What do the technique, scale, composition, and comparative advantage effects indicate? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 20131-20142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5217-9 Go to original source...
    64. Mahmood, N., Wang, Z., Hassan, S. T. (2019). Renewable energy, economic growth, human capital, and CO2 emission: An empirical analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 20619-20630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05387-5 Go to original source...
    65. Mania, E. (2019). Export diversification and CO2 emissions: An augmented environmental Kuznets curve. Journal of International Development, 3, 168-185. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3441 Go to original source...
    66. Muhammad, I., Ozcan, R., Jain, V., Sharma, P., Shabbir, M. S. (2022). Does environmental sustainability affect the renewable energy consumption? Nexus among trade openness, CO2 emissions, income inequality, renewable energy, and economic growth in OECD countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 90147-90157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22011-1 Go to original source...
    67. Murshed, M., Dao, N. T. T. (2022). Revisiting the CO2 emission-induced EKC hypothesis in South Asia: The role of export quality improvement. GeoJournal, 87, 535-563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10270-9 Go to original source...
    68. Namahoro, J. P., Wu, Q., Zhou, N., Xue, S. (2021). Impact of energy intensity, renewable energy, and economic growth on CO2 emissions: Evidence from Africa across regions and income levels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 147(111233), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111233 Go to original source...
    69. Nasir, M., Rehman, F. U. (2011). Environmental Kuznets curve for carbon emissions in Pakistan: An empirical investigation. Energy Policy, 39, 1857-1864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.01.025 Go to original source...
    70. Narayan, P. K. (2005). The saving and investment nexus for China: Evidence from cointegration tests. Applied Economics, 37(17), 1979-1990. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840500278103 Go to original source...
    71. Nkwatoh, L. S. (2022). Zero-pollution effect and economic development: Standard and nested environmental Kuznets curve analyses for West Africa. Environmental Development and Sustainability, 24, 11895-11910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01921-z Go to original source...
    72. Oster, E. (2019). Unobservable Selection and Coefficient Stability: Theory and Evidence. Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 37(2), 187-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.2016.1227711 Go to original source...
    73. Öztürk, İ., Acaravci, A. (2013). The long run and causal analysis of energy, growth, openness and financial development on carbon emissions in Türkiye. Energy Economics, 36, 262-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.08.025 Go to original source...
    74. Papageorgiou, C., Spatafora, N. (2012). Economic diversification in LICs: Stylized facts and macroeconomic implications. IMF Staff Discussion Note, 14, 1-19. Go to original source...
    75. Pao, H. J., Tsai, C. M. (2011). Multivariate Granger causality between CO2 emissions, energy consumption, FDI, and GDP: Evidence from a panel of BRIC countries. Energy, 36, 685-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.09.041 Go to original source...
    76. Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16, 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616 Go to original source...
    77. Phillips, P. C. B., Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. Biometrika, 75, 335-346. https://doi.org/10.2307/2336182 Go to original source...
    78. Rahman, M. M., Vu, X.-B. (2020). The nexus between renewable energy, economic growth, trade, urbanisation and environmental quality: A comparative study for Australia and Canada. Renewable Energy, 155, 617-627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.03.135 Go to original source...
    79. Raihan, A., Begum, R. A., Said, M. N. M., Pereira, J. J. (2022). Relationship between economic growth, renewable energy use, technological innovation, and carbon emission toward achieving Malaysia's Paris agreement. Environmental Systems Decisions, 42, 586-607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-022-09848-0 Go to original source...
    80. Ravallion, M., Heil, M., Jalan, J. (2000). Carbon emissions and income inequality. Oxford Economic Papers, 52, 651-669. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/52.4.651 Go to original source...
    81. Safar, W. (2022). Income inequality and CO2 emissions in France: Does income inequality indicator matter?. Journal of Cleaner Production, 370, 1-27. 133457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133457 Go to original source...
    82. Sharma, R., Sinha, A., Kautish, P. (2021). Examining the nexus between export diversification and environmental pollution: Evidence from BRICS nations. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 61732-61747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14889-0 Go to original source...
    83. Shahbaz, M., Hye, Q. M. A., Tiwari, A. K., Leitao, N. C. (2013a). Economic growth, energy consumption, financial development, international trade, and CO2 emissions in Indonesia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 25, 109-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.04.009 Go to original source...
    84. Shahbaz, M., Tiwari, A. K., Nasir, M. (2013b). The effects of financial development, economic growth, coal consumption, and trade openness on CO2 emissions in South Africa. Energy Policy, 61, 1452-1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.006 Go to original source...
    85. Shahzad, U., Ferraz, D., Dogan, B., Rebelatto, D. A. D. N. (2020). Export product diversification and CO2 emissions: Contextual evidences from developing and developed economies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 276, 1-19. 124146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124146 Go to original source...
    86. Shin, Y., Yu, B., Greenwood-Nimmo, M. (2014). Modelling asymmetric cointegration and dynamic multipliers in a nonlinear ARDL framework. In R. C. Sickles & W. C. Horrace (Eds.), Festschrift in honor of Peter Schmidt: Econometric methods and applications (pp. 281-314). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-8008-3_9 Go to original source...
    87. Subramaniam, Y., Loganathan, N. (2024). Does green finance affect renewable energy development in Singapore?. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 31(3), 162-174. https://doi.org/10.1108/JABES-02-2023-0052 Go to original source...
    88. Sun, Y., Li, H., Andlib, Z., Genie, M. G. (2022). How do renewable energy and urbanization cause carbon emissions? Evidence from advanced panel estimation techniques. Renewable Energy, 185, 996-1005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.112 Go to original source...
    89. Tamazian, A., Chousa, J. P., Vadlamanati, K. C. (2009). Does higher economic and financial development lead to environmental degradation: Evidence from BRIC countries. Energy Policy, 37, 246-253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.025 Go to original source...
    90. Uddin, M. M., Mishra, V., Smyth, R. (2020). Income inequality and CO2 emissions in the G7, 1870-2014: Evidence from non-parametric modelling. Energy Economics, 88, 104780, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.104780 Go to original source...
    91. United Nations (2020). The sustainable development goals report. [Retrieved 2022-02-18] Available at:https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020.
    92. United Nations (2023) The 17 Goals - Sustainable development goals-the United Nations. [Retrieved 2023-08-01] Available at:https://sdgs.un.org/goals.
    93. Walde-Rufael, Y., Idowu, S. (2017). Income distribution and CO2 emission: A comparative analysis for China and India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 74, 1336-1345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.149. Go to original source...
    94. Wang, Q., Li, L., Li, R. (2023). Uncovering the impact of income inequality and population aging on carbon emission efficiency: An empirical analysis of 139 countries. Science of The Total Environment, 857, 159508, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159508. Go to original source...
    95. Wang, Q., Yang, T., Li, R. (2023). Does income inequality reshape the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis? A nonlinear panel data analysis. Environmental Research, 216, 114575, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114575. Go to original source...
    96. Wang, L., Chang, H-L., Rizvi, S.K.A., Sari, A. (2020). Are eco-innovation and export diversification mutually exclusive to control carbon emissions in G-7 countries? Journal of Environmental Management, 270, 110829, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110829. Go to original source...
    97. Wang, Z., Jebli, M.B., Madaleno, M., Dogan, B., Shahzad, U. (2021). Does export product quality and renewable energy induce carbon dioxide emissions: Evidence from leading complex and renewable energy economies. Renewable Energy, 171, 360-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.02.066. Go to original source...
    98. Wang, L. (2022). Research on the dynamic relationship between China's renewable energy consumption and carbon emissions based on ARDL model. Resources Policy, 77, 102764, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102764. Go to original source...
    99. World Bank Group (2022). Türkiye CCDR Background Note 7 The decarbonizing world:Competitive risks, strengths, and opportunities for Türkiye, Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099005106072227043/pdf/P1774790c1683a00808054028e978b5878a.pdf, Access Date: 31.03.2025
    100. Yameogo, C., Dauda, E. W., Risikat, O. S. (2020). The effect of income inequality and economic growth on environmental quality: A comparative analysis between Burkina Faso and Nigeria. Journal of Public Affairs, 2020: e2566, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2566. Go to original source...
    101. Yang, G., Sun, T., Wang, J., Li, X. (2015). Modeling the nexus between carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth. Energy Policy, 86, 104-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.06.031. Go to original source...
    102. Yang, B., Ali, M., Hashmi, S. H., Jahanger, A. (2022). Do income inequality and institutional quality affect CO2 emissions in developing economies? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 42720-42734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18278-5. Go to original source...
    103. Zafar, M. W., Saleem, M. M., Destek, M. A., Cağlar, A. E. (2021). The dynamic linkage between remittances, export diversification, education, renewable energy consumption, economic growth and CO2 emissions in top remittance-receiving countries. Sustainable Development, 30(1), 165-175. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2236. Go to original source...
    104. Zhang, Q., Zhang, S., Ding, Z., Hao, Y. (2017). Does government expenditure affect environmental quality? Empirical evidence using Chinese city-level data. Journal of Cleaner Production, 161, 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.096. Go to original source...
    105. Zhang, Y. J. (2011). The impact of financial development on carbon emissions: An empirical analysis in China. Energy Policy, 39, 2197-2203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.02.026. Go to original source...
    106. Zhang, C., & Zhao, W. (2014). Panel estimation for income inequality and CO2 emissions: A regional analysis in China. Applied Energy, 136, 382-392. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.048 Go to original source...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0), which permits non-comercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content